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CONCLUDING
REMARKS
[ Go to Contents ]
72.
Limitations of space require a great deal of omission in describing pertinent
developments and summarizing relevant qualitative and quantitative information,
as well as necessitating superficial treatment of complex issues. These
limitations are beyond the Special Rapporteur's influence.
73.
The Commission. s initiative with regard to a seminar on indicators relating
to the right to education
72 regretfully did not materialize. The Special
Rapporteur feels that the vast amounts of data which are being internationally
generated within the field of education do not conform to the human rights
approach to education, and a conceptual challenge remains for the human
rights community to design indicators that would capture the essence of
the right to education and human rights in education. She is planning
to address this issue in her next report.
74.
The Special Rapporteur has continued her review of the right to education
worldwide by focusing on international and domestic dimensions in conjunction.
This report has outlined major ongoing developments; it will be complemented
by an update in her oral presentation to the Commission in April 2000,
on the eve of the Education for All Conference in Dakar.
75.
It bears repeating that the Special Rapporteur has undertaken an in-depth
study of States. practice in the interpretation and enforcement of the
right to education. Only a few issues have been highlighted in the present
report. Bearing in mind the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination,
Xenophobia and Related Intolerance in 2001, the Special Rapporteur is
planning to analyse in her next report the existing jurisprudence relating
to the orientation and content of educational curricula and textbooks,
with a view to ensuring their conformity with the requirement of elimination
of all forms of discrimination
73. As noted above, she has already scheduled
a meeting with the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination,
and is also planning to liaise and coordinate her work with the Sub-Commission
on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights and the Special Rapporteur
on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and
related intolerance. She is also planning to concentrate on methods of
instruction, with special focus on corporal punishment and prevention
of violence in school, which has generated jurisprudence in all the regions
of the world.
Notes
1. Commission on Human
Rights resolution 1999/25 of 26 April 1999, entitled "Question of the
realization in all countries of the economic, social and cultural rights
contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and study of special
problems which the developing countries face in their efforts to achieve
these human rights". «-- back
2. Commission
on Human Rights resolution 1999/80 of 28 April 1999, entitled "Rights
of the child", section V, "Promotion of the right of the child to education",
paras. 37 (a) and (c).
«-- back
3. The Special Rapporteur
is thankful to the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) for
funding research assistance for her mandate, the acquisition of documentation
as well as travelling expenses, without which she would not have been
able to carry out her mandate. She also acknowledges the debt of gratitude
she owes to her research assistant, Sara Gustafsson of the Raoul Wallenberg
Institute, for the enormous amount of background research she has done.
«-- back
4. Committee on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights, General comment 11 (1999): Plans of action
for primary education (article 14 of the Covenant) (document E/C.12/1999/4
of 10 May 1999) and General comment No. 13 (Twenty-first session,
1999): The right to education (article 13) (document E/C.12/1999/10 of
8 December 1999).
«-- back
5. IWGE, Selected Issues in Development Assistance to Education. Meeting of the
International Working Group on Education (IWGE), Nice, France, 6-8 November
1996, International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris, 1997,
pp. 35 and 37.
«-- back
6. In some countries
a census has not been held for more than 15 years (in Angola and Lebanon
not since 1970; in Cuba, Sri Lanka and Togo not since 1981; in Burma/Myanmar
not since 1983; in Congo/Brazzaville, Congo/Kinshasa, and Ghana not since
1984; in Sierra Leone not since 1985) and in more than 30 countries a
decade has passed since the latest census, without a new one being carried
out. More than 80 countries are lacking or have an incomplete vital registration
system. (The World Bank, World Development Indicators 1999, Washington
D.C., March 1999, pp. 373-379).
«-- back
7. Education at
a Glance - OECD Database 1999, CD-ROM. The World Education Indicators
Programme (WEI), coordinated by OECD and UNESCO, has enabled the first
comparisons between OECD countries and some developing countries (Argentina,
Brazil, Chile, China, India, Indonesia, Jordan, Malaysia, Paraguay, the
Philippines, Uruguay and Thailand), also including Russia.
«-- back
8. The Special Rapporteur
is referring to divergent statistical categorization of children for the
purposes of schooling throughout this report, which is necessitated by
different actors using different categorizations. She has consistently
objected to the use of the 6-11 age-range because it implicitly endorses
a school-leaving age which is much lower than the internationally defined
minimum age for employment. The 5-15 age-range referred to here is derived
from OECD, and the school-leaving age corresponds to the minimum age for
employment.
«-- back
9. UNESCO. s World Education Report perceptively observed that "the adult population
is running out of people to educate" and attention in OECD countries has
switched to prolonging education throughout adulthood. (UNESCO, Teachers
and Teaching in a Changing World. World Education Report 1998, Paris,
1998, p. 29).
«-- back
10. "Handover of 17
million signatures to Chancellor Gerhard Schroeder in Cologne, 19 June 1999",
(http://www.jubilee2000uk.org).
«-- back
11. This campaign
was launched by Education International, Oxfam, Action Aid, the Global
March against Child Labour, the South African NGO Coalition, the Bangladeshi
Campaign for Popular Education and the Brazilian National Campaign for
the Right to Education.
«-- back
12. OECD/DAC, Development Co-operation. 1998 Report, Paris, 1999, p. 72.
«-- back
13. Department for
International Development, Learning Opportunities for All. A Policy
Framework for Education, May 1999, p. 9.
«-- back
14. IWGE, Education Aid Policies and Practices. Meeting of the International Working
Group on Education (IWGE), Nice, France, 16 -18 November 1994, pp.
18 and 25.
«-- back
15. P. Bennell and
D. Furlong, Has Jomtien Made Any Difference? Trends in Donor Funding
for Education and Basic Education Since the Late 1980s, Institute
of Development Studies, Brighton, March 1997, p. 10.
«-- back
16. "Wolfenson pledges
development reform", Financial Times, 29 September 1999.
«-- back
17. Communiqué of
the Interim Committee of the Board of Governors of the International Monetary
Fund, Press Release No. 99/46 of 26 September 1999 (corrected on 27 September 1999),
para. 5.
«-- back
18. In Decentralization of Education. Legal Issues (The World Bank, June 1997),
Ketleen Florestal and Robb Cooper have discussed a range of pertinent
legal issues, which indicates that some in-house knowledge has been generated.
«-- back
19. The World Bank.
s endorsement of free primary education had been included in its sector
policy paper in 1980, then it disappeared for 15 years to appear
again in 1995 ("free basic education"), and disappear again from the 1999
sectoral strategy.
«-- back
20. The World Bank,
Education Sector Strategy, Washington, D.C., July 1999, pp. 3 and 19.
«-- back
21. The blueprint
has been included in Development and Human Rights: The Role of the
World Bank (September 1998, p. 23) with regard to child labour. These
steps are: including pertinent issues in the policy dialogue with borrowers,
training the staff to become aware of the issues, raising the issues with
the borrower and helping the Government to address it, and including a
provision in the lending agreement whereby the borrower will enforce its
own laws.
«-- back
22. The World Bank,
Education Sector Strategy, Washington, D.C., July 1999, p. 3.
«-- back
23. The World Bank,
Education Sector Strategy, Washington, D.C., July 1999, p. 7.
«-- back
24. Optional Protocol
to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women, General Assembly resolution 54/4 of 6 October 1999, annex.
«-- back
25. The Law on the
Strengthening of the Area of Human Rights in Norwegian Law (Lov om styrkning
av menneskerettighetenes stilling in norsk ret, Besl. O. Nr. 58) of 13
April 1999.
«-- back
26. African Commission
on Human and Peoples Rights, Free Legal Assistance Group, Lawyers Committee
for Human Rights, Union Interafricaine des Droits de lHomme, Les Témoins
de Jehovah v. Zaire, Communications 25/89, 47/90, 56/91 and 100/93
(joint), Decision of the Commission adopted at its 18th ordinary session
at Prais (Cape Verde), Ninth Annual Activity Report of the African
Commission on Human and Peoples Rights 1995/96, Assembly of Heads of State
and Government, Thirty-second Ordinary Session, 7-10 July 1996, Yaounde,
Cameroon.
«-- back
27. EURYDICE, A Decade of Reforms at Compulsory Education Level in the European Union
(1984-94), The Information Network on Education in Europe, Brussels,
1997, p. 17.
«-- back
28. The following
countries are amongst the many that refer to the co-existence between
free State schools and fee-charging private schools: Australia (E/1994/104/Add. 22, paras. 268-270), Austria (E/1990/6/Add.5, para. 160), Azerbaijan (E/1990/5/Add.30, para. 167), Colombia (CCPR/C/103/Add.3, para. 56), Comoros (CRC/C/28/Add.13, para. 87), Czech Republic (CRC/C/11/Add.11, para. 193), Georgia (E/1990/5/Add.37, para. 260 and CRC/C/41/Add.4/Rev.1, para.
252), Ireland (CRC/C/11/Add.12, para. 461), Laos (CRC/C/8/Add,32,
para. 122), Lebanon (CRC/C/15/Add,54, paras. 12 and 30), Maldives
(CRC/C/8/Add.33, para. 95), Malta (CRC/C/3/Add.56, para. 242),
Mauritius (E/C.12/1994/8, para. 16), Philippines (CRC/C/3/Add.23,
para. 180), Venezuela (CRC/C/3/Add.54, para. 160).
«-- back
29. Human Rights Committee,
Carl Henrik Blom v. Sweden, Communication No. 191/1985, Views
adopted on 4 April 1988, Selected Decisions of the Human Rights Committee under the Optional Protocol,
Seventeenth to thirty-second sessions (October 1982 - April 1988),
United Nations, New York, 1990, p. 219, para. 10.3; G.
and L. Lindgren and L. Holm et. al. v. Sweden, Communications Nos.
298/1988 and 299/1988, Views of the Committee adopted on 9 November 1990,
UN Doc. CCPR/C/40/D/298-299/1988 of 7 December 1990, para. 10.3.
«-- back
30. Brown et al.
v. Board of Education of Topeka et al. Judgment of 17 May 1954, 347
US 294.
«-- back
31. European Commission
on Human Rights, decisions concerning applications Nos. 6857/74 and 1533/85,
Decisions and Reports, vol. 9, p. 27 and vol. 51, p. 125.
«-- back
32. Supreme Court
of Canada, Adler v. Ontario, Judgment of 21 November 1996, [1996]
3 SCR 609, (1996) 140 DLR (4th) 385.
«-- back
33. The Special Rapporteur
deems that education constitutes a public good because its worth increases
when it is shared and it cannot be prevented from spreading. Different
from education, schooling cannot easily be defined as a public good because
individuals can be prevented from having access to school. The denial
of formal schooling cannot be equated with a lack of education - people
learn at home, on the street, in the community, in prison or refugee camps.
«-- back
34. Tribunal Supremo
de Puerto Rico, Asociación de Maestros v. José Arsenio Torres,
30 November 1994, 94 DTS 12:34.
«-- back
35. ... si bien
la Constitución protege la actividad económica, la iniciative privada
y la libre competencia y reconoce también el derecho de los particulares
de fundar centros educativos, tales libertades no pueden anular ni disminuir
el carácter de servicio público y de función social [atribuido por la
Constitución Política a la educación,] que también y sobre todod es un
derecho fundamental...
... la educación - aun la
privada - debe prestarse en condiciones tales que garantice la igualdad
de oportunidades en el acceso a ella, por lo cual repugna a su sentido
de servicio público con profundo contenido social cualquier forma de trato
discriminario o "litista"que, en virtud de un exagerado requerimiento
económico, excluya per se a personas intelectualmente capaces [por] suyo
nivel de ingresos.
... Supreme Court of Colombia,
Request by Adres De Zubiria Samper that article 203 (in part) of
Law No. 115 of 1994 be determined to be unconstitutional. Judgment of
6 November 1997, C-60/97.
«-- back
36. There is not much
difference between OECD and developing countries in the structure of education
budgets for primary and secondary education. In OECD countries, current
expenditure amounts to 92 per cent of the budget and teachers.
salaries constitute 69 per cent of current expenditure; in developing
countries, current expenditure is 93 per cent and teachers. salaries
constitute 78 per cent of it. (OECD, Education at a Glance.
OECD Indicators 1998, p. 129).
«-- back
37. The ILO Freedom
of Association Committee has consistently rejected assertions that teaching
is an essential service and thus teachers could be denied the right to
strike, stating that the right to strike can only be restricted and even
prohibited in the public service (public employees being those who act
as agents of the public authority) or in the essential services in the
strict sense of the term (i.e. those services whose interruption would
endanger the life, personal safety or health of the whole or part of the
population). Freedom of Association Committee - 272nd Report, Case
No. 1503 (Peru), para. 117.
«-- back
38. Commission on Human
Rights resolution 1998/33, para. 6 (a) (ii).
«-- back
39. In the contemporary history
of the introduction of fees in primary school, the precedent is often
attributed as having been set by Mateen Thobani. s study of Malawi, which
argued that school fees would not decrease enrolment and that it would
not be the poorest who would drop out of schooling as a result (M. Thobani,
"Charging user fees for social services: the case of education in Malawi",
World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 572, Washington, D.C., 1983), to be
proved wrong after the introduction of school fees resulted in plummeting
enrolment (B. Fuller, "Eroding economy, declining school quality:
the case of Malawi", IDS Bulletin, vol. 20, 1989). The elimination
of school fees in 1994 resulted in the doubling of enrolment (S. Reddy
and J. Vandemoortele, "User financing of basic social services: a
review of theoretical arguments and empirical evidence", UNICEF Staff
Working Paper, New York, 1996). The World Bank. s advocacy for increasing
school fees in Malawi in 1982-83, for which Thobani. s work was frequently
quoted as the most illustrative of the Bank. s reasoning at the time,
led to the formulation of what became known as the "Thobani rule", whereby
families and individuals had to pay fees in order to access nominally
available public services, otherwise the services would not be available
at all or their quality would be unacceptably low. (P. Penrose, Planning
and Financing Sustainable Education Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa,
Department for International Development, Education Research, Serial No.
7, London, 1998).
«-- back
40. A listing of countries
where fees were charged at all levels of education was compiled by the
World Bank in 1986. African countries which charged fees in primary school
in the early and mid-1980s included Burkina Faso, the Central African
Republic, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Swaziland, Togo,
Uganda and Zambia (G. Psacharopulous, J.-P. Tan and E. Jimenez, Financing
Education in Developing Countries. An Exploration of Policy Options,
The World Bank, Washington, D.C., July 1986, p. 55).
«-- back
41.on the Rights of the Child.
«-- back
42. Reservations to article
13.2 (a) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights have been submitted by Barbados, Madagascar and Zambia and the
wording of all three emphasized the existing resource constraints; the
general reservation by Bangladesh also points to the existing economic
conditions. The general reservation by Rwanda which limits the provisions
on education to the scope of rights recognized in Rwanda. s Constitution
could also point to a divergence from education being free and compulsory.
Reservations to article 28.1
(a) of the Convention on the Rights of the Child have been submitted by
Samoa and Swaziland, also pointing to resource constraints (as do the
general reservations by India, Oman and Tunisia), while the reservation
of Singapore limits access to free primary education to citizens. Reservations
which confine the rights of the child to those already recognized in Constitutions
(by Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia and Malaysia) could also indicate non-acceptance
of free and compulsory primary education.
«-- back
43. The commentary by the
Secretary-General of the Council of Europe had this to say about the replacement
of the originally proposed "every person has the right to education" by
a negative formulation:
"The right to education has
been asserted in the negative formulation: . No person shall be denied
the right to education. because the positive formulation proposed by the
[Consultative Assembly in August 1950] might be interpreted to impose
on the State the positive duty to provide education. While education is
provided by the State for children, as a matter of course, in all member
States, it is not possible for them to give an unlimited guarantee to
provide education, as that might be construed to apply to illiterate adults
for whom no facilities exist, or to types or standards of education which
the State cannot furnish for one reason or another."
Council of Europe, Collected
Edition of the Travaux Préparatoires of the European Convention on Human
Rights, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, 1985, vol. VIII, pp. 11-12.
«-- back
44. Reservations to article
2 of the First Protocol which deals with education have been submitted
by Bulgaria, Germany, Greece, Moldova, Romania, and the United Kingdom;
they all limit Government. s financial commitment to funding schools set
up through the exercise of parental freedom to educate their children
in accordance with their beliefs.
«-- back
45. The Special Rapporteur
acknowledges with gratitude excellent background research on financial
obstacles to access to primary education under the human rights reporting
procedures by Lionel Yee at the International Human Rights Clinic of the
New York University School of Law, under the supervision of Professor
Donna Sullivan.
«-- back
46. School fees are charged
in Benin (CRC/C/3/Add.52, paras. 169 and 188), Cameroon (E/1990/5/Add.35, paras. 118 and 119), Central African Republic (CRC/C/11/Add.18, paras. 29 and 68), Chad
(CRC/C/3/Add.50, para. 42), Fiji (CRC/C/28/Add.7, paras. 202, 206-207), Gambia (E/C.12/1994/9, para. 17), Ghana (CRC/C/3/Add.39, para. 110), Guinea (E/C.12/1/Add.5, para. 23), Lesotho (CRC/C/11/Add.20, para. 198), Madagascar (CRC/C/8/Add.5, para. 218), Namibia (CRC/C/3/Add.12, para. 346), Nigeria (E/C.12/1/Add.23, para. 30), Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (E/C.12/1/Add.21, para. 27), Senegal
(CRC/C/15/Add.44, para. 14), Solomon Islands (E/C.12/1999/SR.9,
para. 14), South Africa (CRC/C/51/Add.2, paras. 388 and 399), Vanuatu
(CRC/C/15/Add.111, para. 21), Zimbabwe (E/1990/5/Add.28, para. 194 and CRC/C/3/Add.35, paras. 32,
181 and 195).
«-- back
47. Algeria (E/1990/5/Add.22,
para. 231), China (concluding observations of CEDAW, A/54/38, para.
295, and CRC/C/11/Add.7, para. 178), Djibouti (CRC/C/8/Add.39,
para. 101), Indonesia (CRC/C/3/Add.26, para. 66), Lao People. s Democratic Republic (CRC/C/15/Add.78, para. 24), Mali
(CRC/C/3/Add.53, para. 142), New Zealand (CRC/C/28/Add.3, para.
277), Nicaragua (CRC/C/3/Add.25, para. 40), Paraguay (CRC/C/3/Add.22,
para. 120), United Republic of Tanzania (CRC/C/8/Add.14, paras.
24 (v) and 49), Viet Nam (CRC/C/3/Add.4, para. 203), and Yemen (CRC/C/15/Add.102, para. 4).
«-- back
48. Textbooks are reportedly
provided free of charge in Austria (E/1990/6/Add.5, para. 155),
Bulgaria (CRC/C/8/Add.29, para. 201); Denmark (E/1994/104/Add.15, para. 325); Finland (CRC/C/8/Add.22, para. 449), Germany (E/1994/104/Add.14, para. 340), Iceland (CRC/C/11/Add.6, para. 313), Italy (CRC/C/8/Add.18, para. 166), Japan (CRC/C/41/Add.1, para. 217), Sri Lanka (E/1990/5/Add.32, para. 318) and Sweden (CRC/C/3/Add.1, para. 170). This listing demonstrates that provision
of free schoolbooks is confined to Western European countries with the
exception of Bulgaria and Sri Lanka. Textbooks are subsidized in many
countries, for example in Nepal (CRC/C/3/Add.34, para. 293) or the Russian Federation (CRC/C/65/Add.5, para. 307). In Armenia,
textbooks are reportedly loaned to pupils against the payment of an annual
fee and/or the parents have to contribute to the cost of textbooks (CRC/C/28/Add.9,
para. 60 and E/1990/5/Add.36, para. 259), while in Georgia the
production of textbooks has been commercialized and they are not available
to the majority of children who cannot pay for them (CRC/C/41/Add.4/Rev.1,
para. 259).
«-- back
49. Such remarks have been
made concerning countries in transition, such as Hungary (CRC/C/8/Add.34,
para. 66) or Yugoslavia (CRC/C/15/Add.49, para. 18).
«-- back
50. A commitment to facilitate
the schooling of poor children through financial subsidies to their families
has been reported from countries as different as Japan (CRC/C/41/Add.1,
para. 217) and Venezuela (CRC/C/3/Add.54, para. 165).
«-- back
51. Commission on Human Rights
resolution 1999/36 of 26 April 1999, on the right to freedom of opinion
and expression, para. 9 (b).
«-- back
52. The ILO Freedom of Association
Committee has indirectly dealt with the expulsion of unmarried pregnant
teachers in Saint Lucia, according to a 1977 regulation which stipulates
that "an unmarried teacher who becomes pregnant shall be dismissed upon
becoming pregnant a second time if still unmarried". The case revolved
around the non-application of a collective agreement which aimed to alter
that legal provision, but tackled the expulsion of pregnant schoolteachers
in that the background transpired to be "the ideal of a married family
life" for which teachers were expected to set the role model. Freedom
of Association Committee, 270th Report, Case No. 1447 (Saint Lucia).
«-- back
53. School Drop-out &
Adolescent Pregnancy: African Education Ministers Count the Cost. A Report
on the Ministerial Consultation held from 15 to 18 September, 1994, Mauritius,organized
by Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE) in collaboration with
the Government of Mauritius, pp. 23-24 and 58-60.
«-- back
54. E.L.M. Bayona and I.
Kandji-Murangi, Botswana. s Pregnancy Related Educational Policies and Their Implications
on Ex-pregnant Girls. Education and Productivity, Research Priorities
for the Education of Girls and Women in Africa, Abridged Research Report
No. 16, Academy Science Publishers, Nairobi, undated, p. viii.
«-- back
55. The quoted part of the
judgment reads in the original as follows: "... aunque la . desescolarización.
no implica la pérdida absoluta del derecho a la educación, sí implica
su prestación conforme a una condición que tiende a estigmatizar a la
alumna embarazada y a discriminarla frente a los restantes estudiantes
en la recepción de los beneficion derivados del [derecho a la educación].
"... erigir - por vía reglamentaria
- el embarazo de una estudiante en causal de sanción, viola los derechos
fundamentales a la igualdad, a la intimidad, al libre desarollo de la
personalidad y a la educación."
«-- back
Supreme Court of Colombia,
Crisanto Arcangel Martinez Martinez y Maria Eglina Suarez Robayo v. Collegio
Cuidad de Cali, No. T-177814, 11 November 1998.
«-- back
56. Convention concerning
the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst
Forms of Child Labour, of 17 June 1999.
«-- back
57. ILO Convention No. 10
laid down in 1921 the prohibition of employment which prejudices children.
s school attendance, setting the age at 14. ILO Convention No. 138
strengthened the correspondence between the school-leaving age and the
minimum age for employment, raising it to 15.
«-- back
58. ILO-IPEC Highlights
of 1998, International Labour Organization - International Programme
on the Elimination of Child Labour, Geneva, October 1998, p. 6.
«-- back
59. D. Atchoarena and S.
Hite, "Training poorly educated people in Africa", document prepared for
the International Labour Office by the International Institute for Educational
Planning, Paris, April 1999, p. 65.
«-- back
60. N. Haspels and others,
Action against child labour: Strategies in education. Country experiences
in the mobilization of teachers, educators and their organizations in
combating child labour, ILO-IPEC, Geneva, May 1999, p. 41.
«-- back
61. ILO-IPEC, "Action against
child labour: the role of education", a briefing paper produced for Consortium
Meeting on Secondary Education, Paris, 10-11 June 1999, p. 10.
«-- back
62. Supreme Court of India,
Mehta v. State of Tamil Nadu, Judgment of 10 December 1996,
(1996) 6 SCC 756; AIR 1997 SC 699; (1997) 2 BHRC 258.
«-- back
63. IWGE, Disadvantage,
Dialogue and Development Co-operation in Education. Meeting of the International
Working Group on Education (IWGE), Feldafing, Munich, 23-26 June 1998,
International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris, 1999, p. 56.
«-- back
64. The two indicators chosen
by the World Bank to assess the legal infrastructure underpinning its
recent focus on knowledge-based economy have been creditors. and shareholders.
rights. The World Bank, World Development Report 1998/99: Knowledge
for Development, Oxford University Press, New York, 1999, pp. 178
and 181.
«-- back
65. Sub-Commission on the
Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, resolution 1999/29 on globalization
and its impact on the full enjoyment of all human rights and resolution 1999/30
on trade liberalization and its impact on human rights of 26 August 1999.
«-- back
66. Human capital is commonly
defined as the sum of economically relevant attributes (knowledge, skills,
competence) held by the working-age population.
«-- back
67. OECD, Measuring What
People Know. Human Capital Accounting for the Knowledge Economy, Paris,
1996, p. 22.
«-- back
68. OECD, Science, Technology
and Industry Scoreboard 1999. Benchmarking Knowledge-Based Economies,
Paris, 1999, pp. 16-17.
«-- back
69. OECD, Human Capital
Investment: An International Comparison, Paris, 1998, p. 93.
«-- back
70. P. Bennell and T. Pearce,
The Internationalization of Higher Education: Exporting Education to Developing
and Transitional Economies, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton,
September 1998, p. 21.
«-- back
71. The World Bank, World
Development Report 1998/99: Knowledge for Development, Oxford University
Press, 1999, p. 146.
«-- back
72. Resolution 1999/25, para.
6 (b).
«-- back
73. Sub-Commission on the
Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, resolution 1999/6, of 25 August 1999,
on the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia
and Related Intolerance, para. 16 (e) and (i).
«-- back
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